Sorry, no, the [blog] shortcode cannot filter posts by date in the way you want.
What I mean is, you could specify a year, month and day as parameters in the [blog] shortcode. For example…
[blog year="2017" monthnum="8" day="9"]
That shortcode would display all posts that were made on 9th August 2017.
But there’s no way to specify “all posts since yesterday” as a parameter.